This is a republish of an article I wrote twenty years ago, before the Agile Manifesto. Now that I am re-reading in the Post- "Lean, Agile, DevOps, Continuous Integration, Continuous Delivery" world, it still makes sense, but without all the latest buzzwords😆.
For the teams that are effectively doing continuous integration today, phased integration may be a quaint reminder of the ways things used to be, but you still have the same incremental integration strategy decisions to make; you just have much better tooling for taking most of the drudgery out of the integration work. For the rest of the software development community who still struggles with quarterly releases, big-bang integration and Fragile methodologies, considering the disadvantages of phased integration is still quite relevant.
How you approach System Integration affects the order in which components are designed, coded, and tested. It also affects the ease with which you can test and debug them. Incremental integration comes in several varieties, and, unless the project is trivial, any one of them is better than phased integration. A good incremental approach assumes that parts of the course are uncharted, that flexibility is important and plans to respond to unexpected opportunities.
In engineering fields other than software, the importance of proper integration is well known. The Pacific Northwest saw a dramatic illustration of the hazards of poor integration when the football stadium at the University of Washington collapsed partway through construction. The structure
wasn’t strong enough to support itself as it was being built. It doesn’t matter that it would have been strong enough by the time it was done; it needed to be strong enough at each step. If you integrate software in the wrong order, it’s hard to code, hard to test, and hard to debug. If
none of it will work until all of it works, it can seem as though it will never be finished. It too can collapse under its own weight during construction – even though the finished product should work.
Because it’s done after project members have finished unit testing and in conjunction with system testing, integration is sometimes thought of as a testing activity. It’s complex enough, however, that is should be viewed as an independent activity. Here are some of the benefits you can expect from careful integration:
- Easier defect diagnosis
- Fewer defects
- Less scaffolding
- Shorter time to first working product
- Shorter overall development schedules
- Better customer relations
- Improved morale
- Improved chance of project creation
- More reliable schedule estimates
- More accurate status reporting
- Improved code quality
- Less documentation
Phased Integration
Until a few years ago, phased integration was the norm. It follows these well-defined steps:
1. Design, code, buy or reuse, test and debug each component. This step is called “unit development”.
2. Combine the components into one whopping-big system. This is called “system integration.”
3. Test and debug the whole system. This is called “system dis-integration.”
One problem with phased integration is that when the components in a system are put together for the first time, new problems inevitably surface and the causes of the problems could be anywhere. Since you have a large number of components that have never worked together before, the culprit might be poorly tested components, an error in the interface between two components, or an error caused by the interaction between two components. All components are suspect.
The uncertainty about the location of any specific problems is compounded by the fact that all the problems suddenly present themselves at once. This forces you to deal not only with the problems caused by interactions between components but with problems that are hard to diagnose because the problems themselves interact. For this reason, another name for phased integration is “big bang integration.”
Phased integration can’t begin until late in the project, after all the components have been unit-tested. When the components are finally combined and errors surface by the score, the project team immediately goes into panicky debugging mode rather than methodical error detection and correction.
Incremental Integration
In incremental integration, you write and test a program in small pieces and then combine the pieces one at a time. In this one-at-a-time approach to integration, you follow these steps:
1. Develop a small, functional part of the system. It can be the smallest functional part, the hardest part, or a key part. Thoroughly test and debug it. It will serve as a skeleton on which to hang the remaining parts of the system.
2. Design, code, test and debug a component.
3. Integrate the new component with the skeleton. Test and debug the combination of skeleton and new component. Make sure the combination works before you add any new components. If work remains to be done, repeat the process starting at step 2.
Benefits of Incremental Integration
Errors are easier to locate
When new problems surface during incremental integration, the new component is obviously at fault. Either its interface to the rest of the system contains an error or its integration with a previously integrated component produces an error. Either way, you know exactly where to look. Moreover, simply because you have fewer problems at once, you reduce the risk that multiple problems will interact or that one problem will mask another. The more interface errors you tend to have, the more this benefit of incremental integration will help in your projects. Since many projects spend up to 50 percent of their time debugging, maximizing debugging effectiveness by making errors easy to locate provides benefits in quality and productivity.
The system succeeds early in the project
When code is integrated and running, even if the system isn’t usable, it’s apparent that it soon will be. With incremental integration, the project team can see early results from their work, so their morale is better than when they suspect that their project will never draw its first breath. Management also has a more tangible sense of progress from seeing a system working with 50 percent of its capability than from hearing that coding is “99 percent complete.”
The units of the system are tested more fully
Integration starts early in the project. You integrate each component as it’s developed, rather than waiting for one magnificent binge of integration at the end. Components are unit-tested in both cases, but each component is exercised as part of the overall system more often with incremental integration than it is with phased integration.
Shorter development schedule
If integration is planned carefully, you can design part of the system while another part is being coded. This doesn’t reduce the total number of work hours required to develop the complete design and code, but it allows some work to be done in parallel, an advantage when calendar time is at a premium.
Incremental Integration Strategies
With phased integration, you don’t have to plan the order in which project components are built. All components are integrated at the same time, so you can build them in any order as long as they’re all ready by D-day.
With incremental integration, you have to plan more carefully. Most systems will call for the integration of some components before the integration of others. Planning for integration thus affects planning for construction; the order in which the components are constructed has to support the order in which they will be integrated.
Integration-order strategies come in a variety of shapes and sizes, and none is best in every case. The best integration approach varies from project to project and the best solution is always one that you create to meet the specific demands of a specific project. Knowing the points on the methodological continuum will give you insight into the possible solutions.
Top-Down Integration
In top-down integration, the component at the top of the hierarchy is written and integrated first. Stubs have to be written to exercise the top component. Then, as components are integrated from top down, stub components are replaced with real ones.
An important aspect of top-down integration is that the interfaces between components must be carefully specified. The most troublesome errors to debug are not the ones that affect single components but those that arise from subtle interactions between components. Careful interface specification can reduce the problem. Interface specification isn’t especially an integration activity, but making sure that the interfaces have been specified well is.
An advantage of top-down integration is that the control logic of the system is tested relatively early. All the components at the top of the hierarchy are exercised a lot, so that big, conceptual design problems are exposed quickly.
Another advantage of top-down integration is that, if you plan it carefully, you can complete a partially working system early in the project. If the user-interface parts are at the top, you can get a basic interface working quickly and flesh out the details later. The morale of both customers and the project team benefits from getting something visible working early.
Top-down incremental integration also allows you to begin coding before the low-level design details are complete. Once the design has been driven down to a fairly-low level of detail in all areas, you can begin implementation and integration of the routines at the higher levels without waiting.
In spite of these advantages, pure top-down integration usually involves disadvantages that are more troublesome than you’ll want to put up with.
Pure top-down integration leaves exercising the tricky low-level interfaces until last. If low-level interfaces are buggy or a performance problem, you’d usually like to get to them long before the end of a project. It’s not unusual for a low-level problem to bubble its way to the top of a system, causing high-level changes and reducing the benefit of earlier integration work. Minimize the bubbling problem through early careful unit testing and performance analysis of the routines that exercise the low-level interfaces.
Another problem with pure top-down integration is that it takes a lot of stubs to integrate from the top down. Many low-level components been integrated, which implies that a large number of stubs will be needed during intermediate steps in integration. Stubs are problematic in that, as test code, they are more likely to contain errors than the more carefully designed system code. Errors in the new stubs that support a new component defeat the purpose of incremental integration, which is to restrict the source of new errors to one new component.
Top-down integration is also nearly impossible to implement purely. In top-down integration done by the book, you start at the top level and then integrate all the routines at the second level. When you’ve integrated all the routines from the second level, and not before, you integrate the routines from the third level. The rigidity in pure top-down integration is completely arbitrary. Most people use a hybrid approach such as integrating from the top-down in sections instead.
Finally, you can’t use top-down integration if the collection of components doesn’t have a top.
Even though pure top-down integration isn’t workable, thinking about it will help you decide on a general approach. Some of the benefits and hazards that apply to a pure, top-down approach apply, less obviously, to a looser top-down approach, so keep them in mind.
Bottom-up Integration
In bottom-up integration, you write and integrate components at the bottom of the hierarchy first. You write test drivers to exercise the low-level components initially and add components to the test-driver scaffolding as they’re developed. As you add high-level components, you replace driver components with real ones.
Bottom-up integration provides a limited set of advantages. It restricts the possible source of errors to the single component being integrated, so errors are easy to locate. Integration can start early in the project.
Bottom-up integration also exercises potentially troublesome low-level interfaces early. Since low-level limitations often determine whether you can meet the systems’ goals, making sure the low-level interfaces have had a full workout is worth the trouble.
The main problem with bottom-up integration is that it leaves integration of the major, high-level interfaces until last. If the system has conceptual design problems at the higher levels, the implementation activity won’t find them until all the detailed work has been done. If the design must be changed significantly, some of the low-level work might have to be discarded.
Bottom-up integration requires you to complete the design of the whole system before you start integration. If you don’t, assumptions that needn’t have controlled the design might end up deeply embedded in low-level code., giving rise to the awkward situation in which you design the high-level components to work around problems in the low-level ones. Letting low-level details drive the design of the higher level components contradicts principles of information hiding and structured design. The problems of integrating higher-level components are small compared to the problems you’ll have if you don’t complete the design of high-level components before you begin low-level coding.
As with top-down integration, pure bottom-up integration is rare, and you can use a hybrid approach instead, integrating in sections.
Sandwich Integration
The problems with pure bottom-up and pure bottom-down integration have led some software integrators to recommend a sandwich approach. You first integrate the control components at the top of the hierarchy. Then you integrate the low-level components and widely-used utility components at the bottom. These high-level and low-level components are the bread of the sandwich. You leave the middle-level components until later. These make up the meat, cheese and tomatoes of the sandwich.
This approach avoids the rigidity of pure bottom-up or top-down integration. It integrates the often-troublesome components first and has the potential to minimize the amount of scaffolding you’ll need. It’s a realistic, practical approach.
Risk-Oriented Integration
Risk-oriented integration is also called “hard part first” integration. It’s like sandwich integration in that it seeks to avoid the problems inherent in pure top-down or pure bottom-up integration. Coincidentally, it also tends to integrate the components at the top and bottom first, saving the middle-level components for last. The motivation, however, is different.
In risk-oriented integration, you identify the level of risk associated with each component. You decide which will be the most challenging parts to implement, and you implement them first. Experience indicates that top-level interfaces are risky, so they are often at the top of the risk list. Low-level interfaces are also risky, so they’re also at the top of the risk list. In addition, you might know of components in the middle that will be challenging. Perhaps a component implements a poorly understood algorithm or has ambitious performance goals. Such components can also be identified as high risks and integrated relatively early.
The remainder of the code, the easy stuff, can wait until later. Some of it will probably turn out to be harder than you thought, but that’s unavoidable.
Feature-Oriented Integration
A final kind of incremental integration is integrating one feature at a time. The term “feature” refers to an identifiable function of the system you are integrating.
Many features must be implemented in multiple components, which puts a twist on the one-component-at-a-time aspect of incremental integration. When the feature to be integrated is bigger than a single component, the “increment” in incremental integration is bigger than a single component. This reduces the benefit of incrementalism a little in that it reduces your certainty about the source of new errors, but if you have thoroughly tested the new components that implement the new feature before you integrate them, that’s only a small disadvantage. You can use the incremental integration strategies recursively by integrating small pieces to form features and then incrementally integrating features to form a system.
You’ll usually want to start with a skeleton you’ve chosen for its ability to support other features. You can hang the reset of the features on the feature you integrate first. Components are added in “feature-trees,” hierarchical collections of routines that make up a feature. Integration is easier if a feature is relatively independent, perhaps calling the same low-level component as the routines for other features, but having no calls to middle-level code in common with other features.
Feature-oriented integration offers three main advantages. First, it eliminates scaffolding for virtually everything except low-level library components. The skeleton might need a little scaffolding, or some parts of the skeleton might not be operational until particular features have been added. When each feature has been hung on the structure, however, no additional scaffolding is needed. Since each feature is self-contained, each feature contains all the support code it needs.
The second main advantage is that each newly integrated feature brings out an incremental addition in functionality. This provides evidence that the project is moving steadily forward.
A third advantage is that feature-oriented integration works well with object-oriented design. Objects tend to map well to features, which makes feature-oriented integration a natural choice for object-oriented systems.
Pure feature-oriented integration is as difficult to pursue as pure top-down or pure bottom-up integration. Usually some of the low-level code must be integrated before significant features can be.
Conclusion
None of these approaches are robust procedures that you should follow methodically and then declare yourself to be done. Like software design approaches, they are heuristics more than algorithms, and rather than following any procedure dogmatically, you come out ahead by making up a unique strategy tailored to your specific project.
References
Adapted and summarized from the below works. Most content is from (2), chapter 7 and (3), Chapter 3.
(1) Hunt, Andrew and Thomas, David. The Pragmatic Programmer: From Journeyman to Master. Addison Wesley, 1999.
(2) Jones, Capers. Software Assessments, Benchmarks and Best Practices. Addison Wesley, 2000.
(3) McConnell, Steve. Code Complete. Microsoft Press, 1993.
